CRACK UGC-NET JUNE 2008 - NOTES

[saki]

as per the suggestions received... i would post notes from now onwards in this seperate thread....

keep reading ...

[saki]

so, today's post-notes is about INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is an indispensable tool and underpins all areas of human interaction. But it is a process that is complex. The extent of its complexity can be seen in the variety of ways in which it can be defined. Below are just a few attempts at a definition of communication.


Thus, communication is any behaviour, verbal, nonverbal or graphic that is perceived by another. It involves a web of activities that differ in different situations. In the workplace, for example, you would probably communicate differently when talking formally to customers as compared to informally with a peer. How you perceive the situation will often determine your communication behaviour.

FORMS AND TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

People communicate with each other in a variety of ways that depend on the message they want to send and the context in which it is to be sent. As a result there are a variety of forms and types of communication such as e-mail, face-to-face, telephone, meetings, corridor conversations and seminars. Dwyer categorises these into three forms of communication - verbal, nonverbal and graphic - and four types of communication - intrapersonal, interpersonal, public and mass.

COMMUNICATION MODELS AND THEORIES

'Communication is a dynamic and interactive process'. Just as there are many definitions of communication, so there are many models of communication, each providing different views of how people transfer and interpret information. Like a jigsaw puzzle, each model provides a part of the picture, but no one model seems to cover all aspects.

THE TRANSMISSION MODEL

The transmission model is concerned with the transfer of meaning from the sender to the receiver . Communication is a one way process.


THE PROCESS MODEL

The transmission model was subsequently adapted to form the process models in which people transmit, receive, interpret and respond to messages with feedback. The process models have seven main elements:

Sender
Message
Receiver
Feedback
Channel
Context or setting (environment)
Noise or interference

In the process models, a message is encoded by the sender through a communication channel, such as voice or body language, and then decoded by the receiver. The receiver then provides feedback. The process is influenced by the context of the situation and any noise or interference.


BERLO'S MODEL

Berlo's focus remained on the transmission model of communication. However, he introduced more of the human elements, such as the relationship between the message channel and the five senses


Effective communication involves both the sender and the receiver. The sender must be as clear as possible and the receiver must signal understanding or clarification. It involves both content and relationship elements content = message, idea
relationship = emotions, power, status
personal Encoding and decoding are based on a person's perception of the world.


COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

Ineffective communication can lead to errors, misunderstanding, poor performance, lower motivation and morale, negative feelings in the workplace and many other issues that may detract from achieving organisational goals. It is, therefore, important to try to minimise barriers to effective and efficient communication: communication barriers distort or interrupt the message and its meaning

OVERVIEW OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Communication in an organisation may be used to influence, inform, control or inspire. Organisational communication can be divided into two broad categories - formal or structured (within the 'systems' established by management) and informal (as when co-workers chat about company matters). Both areas are significant and both need to be 'healthy' for the organisation to be healthy.

FORMAL COMMUNICATION CHANNELS AND NETWORKS

Formal communication channels follow the organisational structure or hierarchy and flow in four directions:

These four directions in which communication can travel are: downward; upward; lateral or horizontal; and diagonal. Downward (1) communication involves communication from higher to lower levels so that leadership can communicate goals, strategies or role expectations. Upward (2) communication flows from lower levels to higher levels of the organisation, for example, when there is a need to communicate problems, results or suggestions.

Horizontal (3) communication occurs across the same level and involves for example, coordination of activities with peers (teams, committees), dissemination of useful information from one department to another (for example sales forecasts from the sales department to production, and problems such as a problem with product design from the production department to research and development). Horizontal communication facilitates the l inking of different areas of expertise and this may encourage innovation. Diagonal (4) channels may potentially cause conflict as they involve communication between the lower level of one department to a higher level in another. In the diagram above, this may cause friction between the employee in accounting department C and the Vice-President (VP) of Accounting as the employee has gone around his or her own superior. Nevertheless this type of communication may be useful as it may simply be information relevant to the Marketing Department and the VP Accounting does not need to be involved.

Formal communication networks also occur within the hierarchy of the organisation and reflect how groups of employees, for example those in a department, work together. Networking or mapping the flow of communication in an organisation can be a useful device. This can identify who is communicating with whom and whether the lines of communication are effective and efficient, or whether there is potential for destructive conflict or tension arising from the communication channels (for example, inappropriate diagonal communication).

FORMAL COMMUNICAITON: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Many communication problems arise from the structure of the organisation. Dwyer mentions three related organisational factors: centralisation; the creation of too many organisational layers; and the structure of the organisation. Other factors may include downsizing which leads to ambiguous reporting structure and poor leadership. Many of these problems may be overcome by:

analysing the organisation structure and communication networks for barriers to effectiveness and efficiency
ensuring downsizing is well planned and the 'survivors' (those left in the organisation) understand the impact of the process on communication networks and procedures
recruiting for competent communication, particularly when recruiting for leadership roles.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Informal organisational communication exists outside the formal lines of the organisational structure. An example of this is friendship groups. The informal communication channel serves two main purposes: it permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction in the workplace and it can improve an organisation's performance by creating alternative, and frequently faster and more efficient, channels of communication (Robbins et al. 2000).

One of the most common forms of informal communication is 'the grapevine'. According to Kreitner and Kinicki (1995) the term grapevine originated from the American Civil War practice of stringing battlefield telegraph lines between trees as a means of efficient communication. In organisations today, the grapevine supplements the formal channels of communication. Although it can be the source of inaccurate rumours, it often functions positively as an early warning signal for organisational changes, as a mechanism for fostering social interaction and cohesiveness between organisational members and as a way of informally sharing and testing ideas.

ALL THE BEST..........

[neethu]

Thanks saki

It will be of great help, please include the notes subject in the title... It will help us to find out the subject easily...

One word about your notes... Precise and crisp.. seems you did a great work to compile it to this extent..

One message to the readers of this post, everyone must recognise saki's efforts, you people are preparing notes and keep it as your own, fearing others will take it down and they may pass NET !!!

here our saki is sharing everything he has.... many days of his hard work... you must be thankful to her ... remember her on your prayers.... Im quite sure she will pass NET for sure, only becoz of her helpfulness..

Thanks again dear

Love
Neets.

[saki]

i will try to incorporate what u suggested Neetu....only one word of suggestion from my side.. m not He.. but She.......

thnx..... all the best

[saki]

hi....... today's post features RESEARCH APTITUDE

Types of Research - Definitions

Action research is a methodology that combines action and research to examine specific questions, issues or phenomena through observation and reflection, and deliberate intervention to improve practice.

Applied research is research undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake.

Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge.

Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to explore a social or human problem and include methods such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research and case studies.

Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions and includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept and door-to-door interviews as well as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys.

There are three basic types of questions that research projects can address:

Descriptive.When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists. Public opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. For instance, if we want to know what percent of the population would vote for a BJP or Congress in the next election, we are simply interested in describing something.

Relational.When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables. A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and females say they would vote for a BJP or Congress candidate in the next election is essentially studying the relationship between gender and voting preference.

Causal.When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables (e.g., a program or treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. If we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would essentially be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of voters who would vote BJP or Congress (effect).

Time is an important element of any research design. The most fundamental distinctions in research design nomenclature: cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies. A cross-sectional study is one that takes place at a single point in time. In effect, we are taking a 'slice' or cross-section of whatever it is we're observing or measuring. A longitudinal study is one that takes place over time -- we have at least two (and often more) waves of measurement in a longitudinal design.

A variable is any entity that can take on different values. Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person's country can be assigned a value.

There is a distinction between an independent and dependent variable. In fact the independent variable is what you (or nature) manipulates -- a treatment or program or cause. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent variable -- your effects or outcomes. For example, if you are studying the effects of a new educational program on student achievement, the program is the independent variable and your measures of achievement are the dependent ones.

A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory.

Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen. A response is a specific measurement value that a sampling unit supplies. If you measure the entire population and calculate a value like a mean or average, it is called parameter of the population. The distribution of an infinite number of samples of the same size as the sample in your study is known as the sampling distribution.

In sampling contexts, the standard error is called sampling error. Sampling error gives us some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. A low sampling error means that we had relatively less variability or range in the sampling distribution. How do we calculate sampling error? We base our calculation on the standard deviation of our sample. The greater the sample standard deviation, the greater the standard error (and the sampling error). The standard error is also related to the sample size. The greater your sample size, the smaller the standard error. Because the greater the sample size, the closer your sample is to the actual population itself. If you take a sample that consists of the entire population you actually have no sampling error because you don't have a sample, you have the entire population. In that case, the mean you estimate is the parameter.

A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection such as picking a name out of a hat, or choosing the short straw.

The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to others. Because simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is reasonable to generalize the results from the sample back to the population. Simple random sampling is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling and you may, just because of the luck of the draw, not get good representation of subgroups in a population.

Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called proportional or quota random sampling, involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. It assures that you will be able to represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups. Second, stratified random sampling will generally have more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This will only be true if the strata or groups are homogeneous.

The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a population that's disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled. It is for precisely this problem that cluster or area random sampling was invented. In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
divide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries)
randomly sample clusters
measure all units within sampled clusters

Then there is non-probability sampling. The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or purposive. In accidental sampling, sample is chosen accidently and we have no evidence that they are representative of the populations we're interested in generalizing to and in many cases we would clearly suspect that they are not. e.g. college students in some psychological survey. In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping various people and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample. Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.

One of purposive sampling is quota sampling. In quota sampling, you select people nonrandomly according to some fixed quota. There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional. In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each. e.g. getting 40% females from a population of say 1000.

Then there is snowball sampling. In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know who also meet the criteria.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment work together to try to address the central research questions. Design can be either experimental or non-experimental.

Data analysis is the last part of the research. In most social research the data analysis involves three major steps, done in roughly this order:

Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (Data Preparation)
Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics)
Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential Statistics)

Data Preparation involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for accuracy; entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and developing and documenting a database structure that integrates the various measures.

Descriptive Statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is, what the data shows.
Inferential Statistics investigate questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population thinks. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.

ALL THE BEST.......

[saki]

hi.. today's post features INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (COMPUTERS)

Computers play a key role in how individuals work and how they live. Even the smallest organizations have computers to help them operate more efficiently, and many individuals use computers at home for educational, entertainment, and business purposes.

HISTORY

Nearly 5,000 years ago the abacus emerged in Asia Minor. The abacus may be considered the first computer. This device allowed its users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack. In 1642, Blaise Pascal, the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a numerical wheel calculator to help his father with his duties. The real beginnings of computers began with an English mathematics professor, Charles Babbage. Babbage's steam-powered Engine, outlined the basic elements of a modern general purpose computer and was a breakthrough concept. This Analytical Engine consisted of over 50,000 components. First fully functional computer was however Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) developed by John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchl. ENIAC was a general-purpose computer.

PERSONAL COMPUTERS
Personal computers are desktop computers designed for an individual's use. They run programs designed to help individuals accomplish their work more productively.

SERVERS
Servers are not designed to be used directly. They make programs and data available for people hooked up to a computer network, a collection of computers connected together so that they can exchange data.

MINICOMPUTERS
Minicomputers are multi-user systems that can handle the computing needs of a smaller corporation or organization. Many people use them simultaneously by means of remote terminals or personal computers.

MAINFRAMES
Mainframes are huge, multi-user systems designed to handle gigantic processing jobs in large corporations or government agencies.

SUPER-COMPUTERS
Supercomputers are ultra fast computers designed to process hugh amounts of scientific data then display the underlying patterns that have been discovered like for national railways, airways etc.

INPUT DEVICES

An input device lets you communicate with a computer. You can use input devices to enter information and issue commands. A keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera, touch pads and joystick are examples of input devices. Features of Input Devices like Keyboard are-
1) Used to type data into the computer
2) Most common input device today
3) Has special keys for giving the computer commands
- Commands tell the computer to do something, like save the file
- These special keys are called command or function keys

2) SCANNER - A scanner allows you to scan documents, pictures, or graphics and view them on the computer. You can also use software to edit the items you scan. It is
1) Used to put printed pictures and text into a computer
2) Converts an image into dots that the computer can understand
3) To scan text, optical character recognition (OCR) software is needed


OUTPUT DEVICES

An output device displays information on a screen, creates printed copies or generates sound. A monitor, printer, and speakers are examples of output devices.

MONITOR - A monitor uses a Picture Tube like a television with the image displayed on the front of the tube, which is called the screen. Displays are flat and use plasma, LCD, active-matrix, or some other technology. Monitors used to be called Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) because of the picture tube, which is a large vacuum tube. A monitor or display produce a soft copy. When the device is turned off the information goes away. Monitors are slowly being replaced by flat panel displays.

PRINTER - Printers produce a hard copy. The information is printed on paper and can be used when the device is off. It is also called a printout. Dot-matrix printers (impact printer) uses metal pins to strike an inked ribbon to make dots on a piece of paper.


SYSTEM UNIT

A computer system unit contains many parts. These can be summarized as
1) Motherboard - The motherboard is the main circuit board of a microcomputer. It is also known as the mainboard or system board.
2) CPU - The CPU is the central electronic chip that determines the processing power of the computer.
3) Memory - Memory is the part of the computer that temporarily stores applications, documents, and stem operating information.
4) Bus - A bus is an electronic line that allows 1s and 0s to move from one place to another.
5) Expansion Slots - Expansions slots appear on the motherboard. They are sockets into which adapters are connected.
6) Ports and Connectors - A port is a connector located on the motherboard or on a separate adapter.
7) Bays - A bay is a space inside the computer case where a hard drive, floppy drive or CD-ROM drive sits
8) Power Supply - A power supply changes normal household electricity into electricity that a computer can use.
9) Sound Components - A sound card lets a computer play and record high quality sound.


CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

It does all of the work for the computer like mathematics, mainly addition, all the logical comparisons of values, directs the flow of data in a computer and controls the operation of the parts of the computer.

Today, all CPUs are microprocessors. A microprocessor is a complete computer on a silicon chip. A microprocessor does all of the functions of a computer like stores data and instructions waiting to be used,
follows changeable instructions, does input, processing, and output

CPUs have three basic parts- ALU, Control Unit and Registers

1) The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) does all of the mathematics in a computer, logic comparisons of values
2) The Control Unit directs the flow of information into the CPU and/or memory or storage and controls which instructions the CPU will do next
3) Registers are used to store data and instructions inside the processor. Size of the registers can affect the speed and performance .

Speed of CPUs - The speed of CPUs is measured in hertzs. A hertz is on cycle per second. It is need to measure time to determine cycles per second. All computers have a clock built into them for timing the cycles. The clock is usually located in a small metal box on the motherboard. Today, many CPUs can complete over six (6) instructions per second. Most computers have a CPU that can do more than 400 MHz. MHz stands for megahertzs. A MHz is 1,000,000 cycles per second. Computers will soon be at speeds of over a gigahertz, 1,000,000,000 Hertzs.


MEMORY UNIT

Primary memory can be used directly by the CPU. It consists of silicon chips, usually either VLS or VLSI technology is used to create the chips. Two forms of Primary Memory
1) Read Only Memory (ROM)
2) Random Access Memory (RAM)

1) Read Only Memory (ROM) - it Stores instructions that are used by the CPU. It tells the CPU how to be the kind of computer it is, for example a Windows, Macintosh, or Play Station computers and how to work with the different parts of the computer.

ROM can also hold programs that are directly accessed by the CPU. One such program is the self-test when the computer is first turned on. The self-test tests to seem if all the parts on the main circuit board (mother board) are working correctly. The instructions in ROM can not usually be changed. The instructions are built into the electronic circuits of the chips. These instructions in ROM are called firmware. To change the instructions in ROM you need to usually change the chips or do some other special process that is normally not available to an average user. The instructions in ROM are nonvolatile. They stay in ROM even when the computer is turned off.

Access to information is random access. Random access means that any piece of information in ROM can be accessed at any given time without access other information first. It is a lot like the tracks on a music CD. You can access any track at any time and in any order.
The other kind of access is sequential access. You must access the information in the order that they are located. This is a lot like a music tape. You must play the songs in order, or you have to fast forward past songs to get to the one you want.

2) Random Access Memory (RAM) - It store data and instructions that are used by the CPU to perform some task. These instructions are usually loaded into RAM from a secondary storage device. RAM is also used to store instructions that tell the CPU how to work with its parts. These instructions are usually called drivers. The instructions in RAM are constantly changing, depending on the needs of the CPU.
The instructions in RAM are volatile. When the computer is turned off the information in RAM disappears. The information in RAM needs to be saved to secondary storage before the computer is turned off.
Access to information is random access.


HOW A COMPUTER STORES INFORMATION

The computer stores information as a string of zeros (0) and ones (1)
The standard string length is eight 0's or 1's in a row. This standard length is called a byte. A byte equals one character. A character is a letter, number, or symbol - it is about any thing that can be typed on a keyboard. There are 256 standard characters used by almost all computers

Information size measurements
One Kilobyte = 1024 bytes
One megabyte = 1000 KB
One gigabyte = 1000 MB


COMMUNICATION DEVICES

Specific equipment and programs are needed to connect to the Internet or to communicate with other computers. You can use any type of computer such as IBM compatible or Macintosh to connect to the Internet or communicate with other computers. You need special programs to use the Internet. Most companies that connect you to the Internet provide the programs you need free of charge. You also need a modem to connect to the Internet. A modem translates computer information into a form that can be transmitted over telephone lines. Modems can be used to connect you to the Internet, exchange information, and to send and receive faxes.

PERIPHERAL DEVICES

A peripheral devices is any piece of hardware attached to a computer. A few examples of peripheral devices are printers, scanners, and digital cameras

SOFTWARE

Computer software provides instruction that tell the computer how to operate. Software are also called programs. Programs are usually created using other software called programming languages.There are two (2) main types of software

1) System Software - Used by the computer to accomplish a task.
It controls the internal function of the computer and other devices connected to the CPU. It is a type of program that acts like a conductor in an orchestra. It directs all the activities and sets all the rules for how the hardware and software work together. MS DOS and Microsoft Windows are examples of system software or operating system software. These are also called Operating System.

2) Application Software - It is used by people to accomplish a specific task. Some common kinds of application software are Word Processor software, Database software , Spreadsheet software
Games, Web Page Browsers. It work with the operating system software to help you use your computer to do specific types of work such as word processing to type a letter.

UTILITIES - Utilities allow you to complete certain tasks on your computer. Examples of some of these tasks are file organizations.
Specific purpose application software used to help a computer work better or to avoid problems. Some utility programs are built into the operating system like Scandisk in the Windows operating system
Disk formatting software. Examples of utility programs are Anti-virus software, Disk maintenance software, File management programs
Security software

ALL THE BEST.....

[c_rathi]

Thanks Saki

lovingly
Rathi

[ebenezer_andrews@yahoo.co.in]

Kindly sent paper 2&3 syllabus for education

[bijumk]

Hello Saki

Where are you? we are waiting for your great notes

[saki]

hi allz... the notes for now are over.. .as the exam is over... sorry i cud not post any notes on the day before exam... as i was busy finding my roll no.... hahahha...

anyways.. here i am going to post the questions that came in
Paper-1 ..... it would be great if you guys read these questions, tally them with your paper and post the answers.... it would be great help to me as well as the others to know where we stand...



(plz note that all these questions are based upon my poor memory... so if anyone finds some discrepancy.. plz notify!)

so here we go.....

[saki]

JUNE 2008 QUESTIONS.... PAPER-1

1. TV Broadcasting System prevalent in India
a) NTSE
b) NTCS
c) PAL
d) SECAM
(i dont know guys its answer.. it seems it is NTSE)

2. If 1 January 2007 is Monday, what was 1 January, 1995?
a) Monday
b) Sunday
c) Friday
d) Wednesday
(it should be Sunday... wht do u say?)

3. "To be benevolent is to be good?" is a
a) Moral Judgment
b) Value Judgment
c) Both of these
(it is Value Judgment)

4. F-tailed test is usually a
a) 2 tailed test
b) 1 tailed test
c) no tailed test
(it should be 2 tailed test...)

5. Human Ear is most sensitive to
a) 0-10 KHz
b) 10-15 KHz
c) 50-100 KHz
(is it 10-15 KHz?)

6. The most comprehensive source of data is
a) Demography
b) Census
c) Surveys
(i dont remember other options.. but correct one is Census!)

7. All India Radio before 1936 was called
a) All India Broadcasting Service
b) All India Broadcasting Corporation
c) Indian State Broadcasting Service
(it is third)

8. National Council for Women Education was established in
a) 1976
b) 1958
c) 1989
d) 2000

9. Prasar Bharti was established on
a) 1997
b) 1995
(dont remember other options but the correct one is 1997
i am damn sure)

10. Corel Draw is an
a) illustration program
b) a text program
c) both of these
(an llustration program)

11. Deductive reasoning is
a) from general to particular
b) from particular to general
c) from particular to particular
d) from general to general
(from general to particular)

12. An Email has .... parts
a) 2 parts
b) 3 parts
c) 1 part
d) none of these
(its 3 parts)

13. A Teacher is termed Friend, Philosopher and Guide
a) Because he has to instill all these values in the student
(i dont remember the other options, but this is the answer)

14. A Field Based Research is called
a) an empirical research
b) an experimental research
c) both of these
d) none of these
(it is called empirical.. lab researches are experimental)

15. Research problem should be from the viewpoint of
a) the interest of the researcher
b) the guide
c) the utility of topic etc.
(it should be interest of the researcher)

16. If an article is sold at Rs. 178 at 11% loss, at what price it should be sold so as to gain 11% gain?
a) 200
b) 220
(dont remember other options, but i think it should be 220... hey any mathematician around?)

17. 4, 16, 8, 64, ..... 256
a) 16
b) 20
c) 25
(it is 16)

18. NAAC is the aegis of
a) UGC
b) AICTE
c) both of these
( it is UGC)

19. Hypothesis is not needed in the case of
a) Historical researches
b) normative researches
c) experimental researches
(it should be normative researches, i think)

20. Largest news agency in india is
a) PTI
b) UNI
c) Sanchar bharti (something)
(it should be PTI)

REST OF THE 30 QUESTIONS ON YOU GUYS....

[simpi]

pl send paper 2 & 3 questions also

[alkesh lokhande]

hi my self alkesh ghiving net of december session and from science bacground doing m.pharm please send me syllabus if u have or can arrange
thank you
alkesh lokhande
mob-09821315392[/size]

[simpi]

thanks a lot dear

hi.. today's post features INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (COMPUTERS)

Computers play a key role in how individuals work and how they live. Even the smallest organizations have computers to help them operate more efficiently, and many individuals use computers at home for educational, entertainment, and business purposes.

HISTORY

Nearly 5,000 years ago the abacus emerged in Asia Minor. The abacus may be considered the first computer. This device allowed its users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack. In 1642, Blaise Pascal, the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a numerical wheel calculator to help his father with his duties. The real beginnings of computers began with an English mathematics professor, Charles Babbage. Babbage's steam-powered Engine, outlined the basic elements of a modern general purpose computer and was a breakthrough concept. This Analytical Engine consisted of over 50,000 components. First fully functional computer was however Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) developed by John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchl. ENIAC was a general-purpose computer.

PERSONAL COMPUTERS
Personal computers are desktop computers designed for an individual's use. They run programs designed to help individuals accomplish their work more productively.

SERVERS
Servers are not designed to be used directly. They make programs and data available for people hooked up to a computer network, a collection of computers connected together so that they can exchange data.

MINICOMPUTERS
Minicomputers are multi-user systems that can handle the computing needs of a smaller corporation or organization. Many people use them simultaneously by means of remote terminals or personal computers.

MAINFRAMES
Mainframes are huge, multi-user systems designed to handle gigantic processing jobs in large corporations or government agencies.

SUPER-COMPUTERS
Supercomputers are ultra fast computers designed to process hugh amounts of scientific data then display the underlying patterns that have been discovered like for national railways, airways etc.

INPUT DEVICES

An input device lets you communicate with a computer. You can use input devices to enter information and issue commands. A keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera, touch pads and joystick are examples of input devices. Features of Input Devices like Keyboard are-
1) Used to type data into the computer
2) Most common input device today
3) Has special keys for giving the computer commands
- Commands tell the computer to do something, like save the file
- These special keys are called command or function keys

2) SCANNER - A scanner allows you to scan documents, pictures, or graphics and view them on the computer. You can also use software to edit the items you scan. It is
1) Used to put printed pictures and text into a computer
2) Converts an image into dots that the computer can understand
3) To scan text, optical character recognition (OCR) software is needed


OUTPUT DEVICES

An output device displays information on a screen, creates printed copies or generates sound. A monitor, printer, and speakers are examples of output devices.

MONITOR - A monitor uses a Picture Tube like a television with the image displayed on the front of the tube, which is called the screen. Displays are flat and use plasma, LCD, active-matrix, or some other technology. Monitors used to be called Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) because of the picture tube, which is a large vacuum tube. A monitor or display produce a soft copy. When the device is turned off the information goes away. Monitors are slowly being replaced by flat panel displays.

PRINTER - Printers produce a hard copy. The information is printed on paper and can be used when the device is off. It is also called a printout. Dot-matrix printers (impact printer) uses metal pins to strike an inked ribbon to make dots on a piece of paper.


SYSTEM UNIT

A computer system unit contains many parts. These can be summarized as
1) Motherboard - The motherboard is the main circuit board of a microcomputer. It is also known as the mainboard or system board.
2) CPU - The CPU is the central electronic chip that determines the processing power of the computer.
3) Memory - Memory is the part of the computer that temporarily stores applications, documents, and stem operating information.
4) Bus - A bus is an electronic line that allows 1s and 0s to move from one place to another.
5) Expansion Slots - Expansions slots appear on the motherboard. They are sockets into which adapters are connected.
6) Ports and Connectors - A port is a connector located on the motherboard or on a separate adapter.
7) Bays - A bay is a space inside the computer case where a hard drive, floppy drive or CD-ROM drive sits
8) Power Supply - A power supply changes normal household electricity into electricity that a computer can use.
9) Sound Components - A sound card lets a computer play and record high quality sound.


CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

It does all of the work for the computer like mathematics, mainly addition, all the logical comparisons of values, directs the flow of data in a computer and controls the operation of the parts of the computer.

Today, all CPUs are microprocessors. A microprocessor is a complete computer on a silicon chip. A microprocessor does all of the functions of a computer like stores data and instructions waiting to be used,
follows changeable instructions, does input, processing, and output

CPUs have three basic parts- ALU, Control Unit and Registers

1) The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) does all of the mathematics in a computer, logic comparisons of values
2) The Control Unit directs the flow of information into the CPU and/or memory or storage and controls which instructions the CPU will do next
3) Registers are used to store data and instructions inside the processor. Size of the registers can affect the speed and performance .

Speed of CPUs - The speed of CPUs is measured in hertzs. A hertz is on cycle per second. It is need to measure time to determine cycles per second. All computers have a clock built into them for timing the cycles. The clock is usually located in a small metal box on the motherboard. Today, many CPUs can complete over six (6) instructions per second. Most computers have a CPU that can do more than 400 MHz. MHz stands for megahertzs. A MHz is 1,000,000 cycles per second. Computers will soon be at speeds of over a gigahertz, 1,000,000,000 Hertzs.


MEMORY UNIT

Primary memory can be used directly by the CPU. It consists of silicon chips, usually either VLS or VLSI technology is used to create the chips. Two forms of Primary Memory
1) Read Only Memory (ROM)
2) Random Access Memory (RAM)

1) Read Only Memory (ROM) - it Stores instructions that are used by the CPU. It tells the CPU how to be the kind of computer it is, for example a Windows, Macintosh, or Play Station computers and how to work with the different parts of the computer.

ROM can also hold programs that are directly accessed by the CPU. One such program is the self-test when the computer is first turned on. The self-test tests to seem if all the parts on the main circuit board (mother board) are working correctly. The instructions in ROM can not usually be changed. The instructions are built into the electronic circuits of the chips. These instructions in ROM are called firmware. To change the instructions in ROM you need to usually change the chips or do some other special process that is normally not available to an average user. The instructions in ROM are nonvolatile. They stay in ROM even when the computer is turned off.

Access to information is random access. Random access means that any piece of information in ROM can be accessed at any given time without access other information first. It is a lot like the tracks on a music CD. You can access any track at any time and in any order.
The other kind of access is sequential access. You must access the information in the order that they are located. This is a lot like a music tape. You must play the songs in order, or you have to fast forward past songs to get to the one you want.

2) Random Access Memory (RAM) - It store data and instructions that are used by the CPU to perform some task. These instructions are usually loaded into RAM from a secondary storage device. RAM is also used to store instructions that tell the CPU how to work with its parts. These instructions are usually called drivers. The instructions in RAM are constantly changing, depending on the needs of the CPU.
The instructions in RAM are volatile. When the computer is turned off the information in RAM disappears. The information in RAM needs to be saved to secondary storage before the computer is turned off.
Access to information is random access.


HOW A COMPUTER STORES INFORMATION

The computer stores information as a string of zeros (0) and ones (1)
The standard string length is eight 0's or 1's in a row. This standard length is called a byte. A byte equals one character. A character is a letter, number, or symbol - it is about any thing that can be typed on a keyboard. There are 256 standard characters used by almost all computers

Information size measurements
One Kilobyte = 1024 bytes
One megabyte = 1000 KB
One gigabyte = 1000 MB


COMMUNICATION DEVICES

Specific equipment and programs are needed to connect to the Internet or to communicate with other computers. You can use any type of computer such as IBM compatible or Macintosh to connect to the Internet or communicate with other computers. You need special programs to use the Internet. Most companies that connect you to the Internet provide the programs you need free of charge. You also need a modem to connect to the Internet. A modem translates computer information into a form that can be transmitted over telephone lines. Modems can be used to connect you to the Internet, exchange information, and to send and receive faxes.

PERIPHERAL DEVICES

A peripheral devices is any piece of hardware attached to a computer. A few examples of peripheral devices are printers, scanners, and digital cameras

SOFTWARE

Computer software provides instruction that tell the computer how to operate. Software are also called programs. Programs are usually created using other software called programming languages.There are two (2) main types of software

1) System Software - Used by the computer to accomplish a task.
It controls the internal function of the computer and other devices connected to the CPU. It is a type of program that acts like a conductor in an orchestra. It directs all the activities and sets all the rules for how the hardware and software work together. MS DOS and Microsoft Windows are examples of system software or operating system software. These are also called Operating System.

2) Application Software - It is used by people to accomplish a specific task. Some common kinds of application software are Word Processor software, Database software , Spreadsheet software
Games, Web Page Browsers. It work with the operating system software to help you use your computer to do specific types of work such as word processing to type a letter.

UTILITIES - Utilities allow you to complete certain tasks on your computer. Examples of some of these tasks are file organizations.
Specific purpose application software used to help a computer work better or to avoid problems. Some utility programs are built into the operating system like Scandisk in the Windows operating system
Disk formatting software. Examples of utility programs are Anti-virus software, Disk maintenance software, File management programs
Security software

ALL THE BEST.....

[jisha]

thanks saki..